When John Hays began mining in Copper Harbor in 1844, the workings visible today indicate tow methods of ore extraction: trenching and deep-shaft mining.

At Eagle River, Col. Charles Gratiot directed his miners to access the copper vein by sinking shafts. Shafting, drifting, stoping, were all conducted using similar methods: by hand-drilling and blasting with black powder wrapped in a waxed paper.

Throughout the copper region, nearly every mining company prized Cornish mining captains, relying on their long years of experience to know how to locate a mineral vein underground and follow it. Most Cornish miners in the Lake Superior copper region had literally grown up in the mines in Cornwall and knew the most efficient ways to place shot holes, blast rock, and were experts with mining machinery such as steam engines, pumps, and stamping equipment.

In just the first four decades of mining in the region, however, things underground and in the corporate offices underwent gradual change. Mechanical man engines began replacing ladders in the 1860s. Twenty years later, air-powered drills began replacing sledge hammers and drill steels, and dynamite began to replace black powder.

But with the introduction of these technological advancements, the prestige and status of the Cornish miner began to continuously decline. So did the importance of the Cornish mining captain.

Mines developing in western states created competition with the Upper Peninsula mines on the copper market and in order to stay competitive, the mines on Lake Superior would need improvements in technology to increase production just when copper content was diminishing as the mines went deeper. Fewer and fewer expert miners in hand drilling were sought as air-powered drills and dynamite were capable of producing far more ore, and faster, than the best Cornish hand drillers using sledge hammers and black powder.

At the same time, companies were relying less and less on Cornish mining captains to locate and follow underground mineral veins, and instead began turning to geologists and college-educated engineers to oversee copper production. The Calumet and Hecla Mining Company was no exception.

C&H president Alexander Agassiz was himself a Harvard graduate with a strange combination of educations. Not only was he a zoologist, he was also a mining engineer. When searching for a new superintendent at the mine, Agassiz singled out a young man named James MacNaughton. In James MacNaughton, Agassiz found an ideal combination of old-style experience, local upbringing, and a college education. In addition to all these qualities, MacNaughton was ambitious and not afraid to assert himself.

Although he was born at the Bruce Mines of Ontario, MacNaughton’s family had moved to Calumet when James was a baby. His father was a miner for C&H, working on the Hecla branch of the mine. But James seemed to understand where the future of mining was headed and he wanted more than to be just a miner.

At 12 years old, James became a water boy on the C&H mill dock in Lake Linden. At the same time, he continued his studies and graduated from school at the age of 14. He then became a switch tender and later an engineer on a stationary steam engine, before leaving the company to attend Oberlin College. By working during his vacation, James was able to continue his education earning a degree in engineering from the University of Michigan. After graduating, he again returned to C&H, this time working in the company’s engineering department until he took a job at the Chapin iron mine as a superintendent. It there, in that position, that Agassiz offered him the job of superintendent at the Calumet and Hecla mines.

In his paper collars, Windsor-knotted ties, and double-breasted suit coat and short, sandy-colored hair parted neatly in the middle, MacNaughton was the epitome of the modern, progressive corporate leader that Agassiz was hoping to find to lead his mine into the 20th century.

MacNaughton was confident to the point of arrogance. He had a distinct advantage in his new position as superintendent: he knew the mine, he knew the mill, and he knew the rail connections between them. Having grown up in a miner’s home, MacNaughton knew the stories of the troubles of life underground; he had undoubtedly heard countless stories and tales from his father and his father’s friends. He understood the hardships that mining could place on a family. But he also understood the business aspect of mining.

MacNaughton had come to superintend C&H at a time when labor unrest was steadily increasing. C&H had already withstood two strikes, one in 1893 and another in 1896. Strikes and labor unrest were becoming common all across the Lake Superior copper region during the last ten years of the 19th century. MacNaughton would find himself caught in the middle. While he had family engaged in mining at C&H, he was also in charge there, answering to Agassiz.

One of the many causes of labor tension was the new technologies being used in the mines. While the new man engines saved underground workers dangerous, ladder climbs, new air-powered rock drills required far less mining experience than hand-drilling. The status of the Cornish miner was being eroded and they were now being treated with no more regard than newer, immigrant workers. At the same time, as the new drilling and blasting technology proved far faster than the old methods, company managers were demanding more production from their miners. Tramming, which had always been physically demanding labor became more demanding as the new technology brought down more rock per shift. The number of tram cars men were expected to load and push to the mine shafts was increasing, but the number of men per crew was not. The work was becoming too hard.

If another strike occurred while MacNaughton presided over the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, would he be sympathetic to the strikers, or would he stand behind the company? If Agassiz had had any doubts, he most likely would not have selected MacNaughton for the position, yet only time would tell if MacNaughton was tough as he acted.

Editor’s note:?Graham Jaehnig can be contacted at gjaehnig@mininggazette.com.